The search for answers to research questions calls of collection
of data. Data are facts, figures and other relevant materials, past and
present, serving as bases for study and analysis.
Types of Data
The data needed for a social science research may be broadly
classified into (a) Data pertaining to human beings, (b) Data relating
to organisations, and (c) Data pertaining to territorial areas.
Personal data or data related to human beings consist of Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of individuals like
age, sex, race, social class, religion, marital status, education,
occupation, income, family size, location of the household, life style,
etc. and Behavioural variables like attitudes, opinions, awareness,
knowledge, practice, intentions, etc.
Organisational data consist of data relating to an organisation’s origin, ownership, objectives, resources, functions, performance and growth.
Territorial data are related to geophysical
characteristics, resources endowment, population, occupational pattern,
infrastructure, economic structure, degree of development, etc. of
spatial divisions like villages, cities, Tabias, Woredas, state/ regions
and the nation.
Importance of data
The data serve as the bases or raw materials for analysis.
Without an analysis of factual data, no specific inferences can be drawn
on the ques-tions under study. Inferences based on imagination or
guesswork cannot provide correct answers to research questions. The
relevance, adequacy and reliability of data determine the quality of the
findings of a study.
Data form the basis for testing the hypotheses formulated in a
Study. Data also provide the facts and figures required for constructing
measure-ment scales and tables, which are analysed with statistical
techniques. Inferences on the results of statistical, analysis and tests
of significance provide the answers to research questions. Thus the
scientific process of measurement, analysis, testing and inferences
depends on the availability of relevant data and their accuracy. Hence
the importance of data for any research studies.
SOURCES OF DATA
The sources of data may be classified into (a) primary sources and (b) secondary sources.
Primary Sources
Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher
directly collects data that have not been previously collected, e.g.,
collection of data directly by the researcher on brand awareness, brand
preference, brand loyalty and other aspects of consumer behaviour from a
sample of consumers by interviewing them. Primary data are first-hand
information collected through various methods such as observation,
interviewing, mailing etc.
Secondary Sources
These are sources containing data that have been collected and
compiled for another purpose. The secondary sources consist of readily
available compendia and already compiled statistical statements and
reports whose data may be used by researches for their studies, e.g.,
census reports, annual reports and financial statements of companies,
Statistical statements, Reports of Government Departments, Annual
Reports on currency and finance published by the National Bank for
Ethiopia, Statistical Statements relating to Cooperatives, Federal
Cooperative Commission, Commercial Banks and Micro Finance Credit
Institutions published by the National Bank for Ethiopia, Reports of
the National Sample Survey Organisation, Reports of trade associations,
publications of international organisations such as UNO, IMF, World
Bank, ILO, WHO, etc., Trade and Financial Journals, newspapers, etc.
Secondary sources consist of not only published records and
reports, but also unpublished records. The latter category includes
various records and registers maintained by firms and organisations,
e.g., accounting and financial records, personnel records, register of
members, minutes of meetings, inventory records, etc.
Features of Secondary Sources: Though secondary sources are
diverse and consist of all sorts of materials, they have certain common
charac-teristics.
First, they are readymade and readily available, and do not require the trouble of constructing tools and administering them.
Second, they consist of data over which a researcher has no
original control over collection and classification. Others shape both
the form and the content of secondary sources. Clearly, this is a
feature, which can limit the research value of secondary sources.
Finally, secondary sources are not limited in time and space.
That is, the researcher using them need not have been present when and
where they were gathered.
USE OF SECONDARY DATA
Uses
The secondary data may be used in three ways by a researcher.
First, some specific information from secondary sources may be used for
refer-ence purposes.
Second, secondary data may be used as bench marks against which the findings of a research may be tested.
Finally, secondary data may be used as the sole source of
information for a research project. Such studies as Securities Market
Behaviour, Financial Analysis of Companies, and Trends in credit
allocation in commercial banks, Sociological Studies on crimes,
historical studies, and the like depend primarily on secondary data.
Year books, Statistical reports of government departments, reports of
public organisations like Bureau of Public Enterprises, Census Reports
etc. serve as major data sources for such research studies.
Advantages
- Secondary data, if available, can be secured quickly and cheaply.
- Wider geographical area and longer reference period may be
covered without much cost. Thus the use of secondary data extends the
researcher's space and time reach.
- The use of secondary data broadens the database from which scientific generalizations can be made.
- The use of secondary data enables a researcher to verify the findings based on primary data.
Disadvantages/limitations
- The most important limitation is the available data may not meet, our specific research needs.
- The available data may not be as accurate as desired.
- The secondary data are not up-to-date and become obsolete when they appear in print, because of time lag in producing them.
- Finally information about the whereabouts of sources may not be available to all social scientists.
METHODS OF COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA: GENERAL
The researcher directly collects primary data from their original
sources. In this case, the researcher can collect the required data
precisely according to his research needs, he can collect them when he
wants them and in the form he needs them. But the collection of Primary
data is costly and time consuming. Yet, for several types of social
science research such as socio-economic surveys, social anthropological
studies of rural communities and tribal communities, sociological
studies of social problems and social institutions, marketing research,
leadership studies, opinion polls, attitudinal surveys, readership,
radio listening and T.V. viewing surveys, knowledge-awareness practice
(KAP) studies, farm management studies, business management studies,
etc., required data are not available from secondary sources and they
have to be directly gathered from the primary sources.
In all cases where the available data are inappropriate, inadequate or obsolete, primary data have to be gathered. .
Methods of Primary Data Collection
There are various methods of data collection. A ‘Method’ is
different from a ‘Tool’. While a method refers to the way or mode of
gathering data, a tool is an instrument used for the method. For
example, a schedule is used for interviewing. The important methods are
(a) observation, (b) interviewing, (c) mail survey, (d) experimentation,
(e) simulation, and (f) projective technique.
Observation involves gathering of data relating to the selected
research by viewing and/or listening. Interviewing involves face-to-face
con-versation between the investigator and the respondent. Mailing is
used for collecting data by getting questionnaires completed by
respondents. Ex-perimentation involves a study of independent variables
under controlled conditions. Experiment may be conducted in a laboratory
or in field in a natural setting. Simulation involves creation of an
artificial situation similar to the actual life situation. Projective
methods aim at drawing inferences on the characteristics of respondents
by presenting to them stimuli. Each method has its advantages and
disadvantages.
Choice of Methods of Data Collection
Which of the above methods of data collection should be selected
for a proposed research project? This is one of the questions to be
considered while designing the research plan. One or More methods
has/have to be chosen. No method is universal. Each method's unique
features should be compared with the needs and conditions of the study
and thus the choice of the methods should be decided.
OBSERVATION
Meaning and Importance
Observation means viewing or seeing. We go on observing some
thing or other while we are awake. Most of such observations are just
casual and have no specific purpose. But observation as a method of data
collection is different from such casual viewing.
Observation may be defined as a systematic viewing of a specific
phenomenon in its proper setting or the specific purpose of gathering
data for a particular study. Observation as a method includes both
'seeing' and 'hearing.' It is accompanied by perceiving as well.
Observation also plays a major role in formulating and testing
hypothesis in social sciences. Behavioural scientists observe
interactions in small groups; anthropologists observe simple societies,
and small com-munities; political scientists observe the behaviour of
political leaders and political institutions.
Types of Observation
Observation may be classified in different ways. With reference
to the investigator’s role, it may be classified into (a) participant
observation, and (b) non-participant observation. In terms of mode of
observation, it may be classified into (c) direct observation, and (d)
indirect observation. With reference to the rigour of the system
adopted, observation is classified into (e) controlled observation, and
(f) uncontrolled observation
EXPERIMENTATION
Experimentation is a research ‘process’ used to study the causal
relationships between variables. It aims at studying the effect of an
inde-pendent variable on a dependent variable, by keeping the other
inde-pendent variables constant through some type of control. For
example, a -social scientist may use experimentation for studying the
effect of a method of family planning publicity on people's awareness of
family plan-ning techniques.
Why Experiment?
Experimentation requires special efforts. It is often extremely
difficult to design, and it is also a time consuming process. Why should
then one take such trouble? Why not simply observe/survey the
phenomenon? The fundamental weakness of any non-experimental study is
its inability to specify causes and effect. It can show only
correlations between variables, but correlations alone never prow
causation. The experiment is the only method, which can show the effect
of an independent variable on dependent variable. In experimentation,
the researcher can manipulate the independent variable and measure its
effect on the dependent variable. For example, the effect of various
types of promotional strategies on the sale of a given product can be
studies by using different advertising media such as T.V., radio and
Newspapers. Moreover, experiment provides “the opportunity to vary the
treatment (experimental variable) in a systematic manner, thus allowing
for the isolation and precise specification of important differences.”
Applications
The applications of experimental method are ‘Laboratory Experiment’, and ‘Field Experiment’.
SIMULATION
Meaning
Simulation is one of the forms of observational methods. It is a
process of conducting experiments on a symbolic model representing a
phenomenon. Abelson defines simulation as “the exercise of a flexible
imitation of processes and outcomes for the purpose of clarifying or
explaining the underlying mechanisms involved.” It is a symbolic
abstrac-tion, simplification and substitution for some referent system.
In other words, simulation is a theoretical model of the elements,
relations and processes which symbolize some referent system, e.g., the
flow of money in the economic system may be simulated in a operating
model consisting of a set of pipes through which liquid moves.
Simulation is thus a techni-que of performing sampling experiments on
the model of the systems. The experiments are done on the model instead
of on the real system, because the latter would be too inconvenient and
expensive.
Simulation is a recent research technique; but it has deep roots
in history. Chess has often been considered a simulation of medieval
warfare.
INTERVIEWING
Definition
Interviewing is one of the major methods of data collection. It
may be defined as two-way systematic conversation between an
investigator and an informant, initiated for obtaining information
relevant to as a specific study.
It involves not only conversation, but also learning from the
respondents’ gestures, facial expressions and pauses, and his
environment. Interviewing requires face-to-face contact or contact over
telephone and calls for interviewing skills. It is done by using a
structured schedule or an unstructured guide.
Importance
Interviewing may be us either as a main method or as a
supplemen-tary one in studies of persons. Interviewing is the only
suitable method for gathering information from illiterate or less
educated respondents. It is useful for collecting a wide range of data
from factual demographic data to highly personal and intimate
information relating to a person's opinions, attitudes, values, beliefs,
past experience and future intentions. When qualitative information is
required or probing is necessary to draw out fully, then interviewing is
required. Where the area covered for the survey is a compact, or when a
sufficient number of qualified interviewers are available, personal
interview is feasible.
Interview is often superior to other data-gathering methods.
People are usually more willing to talk than to write. Once rapport is
established, even confidential information may be obtained. It permits
probing into the context and reasons for answers to questions.
Interview can add flesh to statistical information. It enables
the inves-tigator to grasp the behavioural context of the data furnished
by the respondents. It permits the investigator to seek clarifications
and brings to the forefront those questions, that, for one reason or
another, respondents do not want to answer.
Types of Interviews
The interviews may be classified into: (a) structured or
directive interview, (b) unstructured or non-directive interview, (c)
focused inter-view, and (d) clinical interview and (e) depth interview.
Telephone Interviewing
Telephone interviewing is a non-personal method of data collection.
Group Interviews
Group interview may be defined as a method of collecting primary
data in which a number of individuals with a common interest interact
with each other. In a personal interview, the flow of information is
multidimensional.
Interviewing Process
The interviewing process consists of the following stages:
- Preparation.
- Introduction
- Developing rapport
- Carrying the interview forward
- Recording the interview, and
- Closing the interview
PANEL METHOD
The panel method is a method of data collection, by which data is
collected from the same sample respondents at intervals either by mail
or by personal interview. This is used for longitudinal studies on
economic conditions, expenditure pattern; consumer behaviour,
recreational pattern, effectiveness of advertising, voting behaviour,
and so on. The period, over which the panel members are contacted for
information may spread over several months or years. The time interval
at which they are contacted repeatedly may be 10 or 15 days, or one or
two months depending on the nature of the study and the memory span of
the respondents.
Characteristics
The basic characteristic of the panel method is successive
collection of data on the same items from the same persons over a period
of time. The type of information to be collected should be such facts
that can be accurately and completely furnished by the respondent
without any reservation. The number of item should be as few as possible
so that they could be furnished within a few minutes, especially when
mail survey is adopted. The average amount of time that a panel member
has to spend each time for reporting can be determined in a pilot study.
The panel method requires carefully selected and well-trained field
workers and effective supervision over their work.-
Types of Panels
The panel may be static or dynamic. A static or
continuous panel is one in which the membership remains the same
throughout the life of the panel, except for the members who drop out.
The dropouts are not replaced.
MAIL SURVEY
Definition
The mail survey is another method of collecting primary data.
This method involves sending questionnaires to the respondents with a
request to complete them and return them by post. This can be used in
the case of educated respondents only. The mail questionnaire should be
simple so that the respondents can easily understand the questions and
answer them. It should preferably contain mostly closed-end and
multiple-choice questions so that it could be completed within a few
Minutes.
The distinctive feature of the mail survey is that the
questionnaire is self-administered by the respondents themselves and the
responses are recorded by them, and not by the investigator as in the
case of personal interview method. It does not involve face-to-face
conversation between the investigator and the respondent. Communication
is carried out only in writing and this requires more cooperation from
the respondents than does verbal communication.
Alternative modes of sending questionnaires
There are some alternative methods of distributing questionnaires
to the respondents. They are: (1) personal delivery, (2) attaching
question-naire to a, product, (3) advertising questionnaire in a
newspaper or magazine, and (4) newsstand inserts.
PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
The direct methods of data collection, viz., personal interview,
telephone interview and mail survey rely on respondents' own report of
their behaviour, beliefs, attitudes, etc. But respondents may be
unwilling to discuss controversial issues or to reveal intimate
information about themselves or may be reluctant to express their true
views fearing that they are generally disapproved. In order to overcome
these limitations, indirect methods have been developed. Projective
Techniques are such indirect methods. They become popular during 1950s
as a part of motivation research.
Meaning
Projective techniques involve presentation of ambitious stimuli
to the respondents for interpretation. In doing so, the respondents
reveal their inner characteristics. The stimuli may be a picture, a
photograph, an inkblot or an incomplete sentence. The basic assumption
of projective techniques is that a person projects his own thoughts,
ideas and attributes when he perceives and responds to ambiguous or
unstructured stimulus materials. Thus a person's unconscious operations
of the mind are brought to a conscious level in a disguised and
projected form, and the person projects his inner characteristics.
Types of Projective Techniques
Projective Techniques may be divided into three broad categories:
(a) visual projective techniques (b) verbal projective techniques, and
(c) Expressive techniques.
SOCIOMETRY
Sociometry is “a method for discovering, describing and
evaluating social status, structure, and development through measuring
the extent of acceptance or rejection between individuals in groups.”
Franz defines sociometry as “a method used for the discovery and
manipulation of social configurations by measuring the attractions and
repulsions between in-dividuals in a group.” It is a means for studying
the choice, communication and interaction patterns of individuals in a
group. It is concerned with attractions and repulsions between
individuals in a group. In this method, a person is asked to choose one
or more persons according to specified criteria, in order to find out
the person or persons with whom he will like to associate.
Sociometry Test
The basic technique in sociometry is the “sociometric test.” This
is a test under which each member of a group is asked to choose from
all other members those with whom he prefers to associate in a specific
situation. The situation must be a real one to the group under study,
e.g., 'group study', 'play', 'class room seating' for students of a
public school.
A specific number of choices, say two or three to be allowed is
determined with reference to the size of the group, and different levels
of preferences are designated for each choice.
Suppose we desire to find out the likings and disliking of
persons in a work group consisting of 8 persons. Each person is asked to
select 3 persons in order or preference with whom he will like to work
on a group assignment. The levels of choices are designated as: the
first choice by the' number 1, the second by 2, and the third by 3.
