TEACHERS’ PROBLEMS IN USING TEXTBOOKS AND INSTRUCTIONAL MEDIA AT SOME ELEMENTARY SCHOOL IN KECAMATAN INDRALAYA KABUPATEN OGAN ILIR, SUMATRA SELATAN

PROPOSAL

By

ICHI STA ‘INAWATI
NIM 0825068

I. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

In Indonesia, English is the first foreign language that has been taught as compulsory subject at junior and senior high schools. However, the result of teaching English has not been satisfactory yet (Kasbolah, 2001:7). We can see from the condition around us which shows that most SMU graduates, who have studied English for approximately six years, are still lack of English competence. They cannot even read English textbooks or English references when they are in the university. Instead of translating the textbooks or references by themselves, they prefer asking someone to translate the textbook they use.

Due to the fact above, the government realizes the importance of English and tries to develop the human resource who have capability in communication using English as a foreign language by legalizing the teaching of English in the elementary schools through the Decree of the Minister of Education and Culture of Indonesia No. 060/U/1993 dated February 25 1993. It states that the local content subjects can be English subject.

Based on the Decree above, the national education office of Kabupaten Balangan has also permitted all elementary schools in this regency to include English as the local content. As a result, some of the elementary schools include English as one of the subjects taught starting from grade four.

However, the implementation of teaching English at elementary schools is far from satisfaction. One of the factors that can be a problem in the teaching of English is the unavailability of textbooks and instructional media (Kasbolah 2002: 3).

This condition also happens in elementary schools in Ogan Ilir regency. The English teachers are difficult to find appropriate textbooks and instructional media used in teaching. As a result, most of the teachers only use the books available without considering the appropriateness of the textbooks with the students’ characteristics.

In reference to the description above, the researcher is interested to conduct a research with the title: Teachers’ problems in using textbooks and instructional media at some elementary schools in Kecamatan Indralaya Kabupaten Ogan Ilir”.


1.2 Identification and Formulation of the Problems

There are some problems faced by the English teachers at elementary schools, they are among others:
Teachers’ qualification
Teaching preparation
Classroom management
English textbooks
Instructional media

In this research, the study is limited only in investagating the teachers’ problems in using textbooks and instructional media. So, the problem can be formulated as follows:

What are the teachers’ problems in the use of English textbooks at Elementary schools at Kecamatan Indralaya Kabupaten Ogan Ilir?

What are the teachers’ problems in the use of instructional media at Elementary schools at Kecamatan Indralaya Kabupaten Ogan Ilir?

1.3 Objective of the Study

In line with the problems above, the study is aimed at describing:
The teachers’ problem

The teachers’ problem in the use of instructional media at Elementary schools at Kecamatan Ogan Ilir.

1.4 Significance of the Study

It is expected that the research finding can give some contribution to teachers who teach English at elementary schools. By knowing the problems, they will be motivated to solve the problems, so that the teaching and learning English can run successfully as teachers’ expectation.




II. Review of Related Literature

2.1 Teaching English at Elementary Schools

Teaching at elementary schools is unique. It means that the teaching of English at elemenatry schools is different from the teaching of English at secondary schools. Kasbolah (1995:58) suggests four requirements that have to be taken into consideration to the implementation of English teaching at elementary school, namely:

(1)   the qualification of teachers, (2)materials, (3) media, and (4) syllabus.

The teachers have very important roles in teaching and learning English. They are the key success or failure in language learning. Furthermore, the teaching and learning will run smoothly if the teachers know exactly what roles that she should perform in the classroom.


2.2 The Instructional Materials/Textbooks

In the English teaching and learning process, a textbook has a very important role due to the functions of textbooks in facilitating the teaching and learning process. Halliwell (1992:113) states several main functions that can be performed by the textbooks. First, it provides a learning program that is sequenced and structured appropriately to give progressive revision.

Second, it gives wider range of materials than an individual teacher would be able to collect. The third, it performs a security for teaching materials. The fourth, it makes possible reduction of preparation time. The fifth, it is a source of practical teaching ideas. The sixth, its function is as an autonomous work for the learners. Seventh, it provides a basis for home work. The eighth, it performs a basis for discussion with other teachers. Ninth, it provides an opportunity for independent learning to the students. Finally, it has a sense of progression for pupils.
Since there are so many English textbooks which are sold freely in the market, teachers should select carefully which book is appropriate for their students. Teachers should also consider whether they know how to use and comprehend the textbooks or not. Romero in Widyanti (1997:13) mentions several requirements of a good English textbook. First, it should be attractive. Second, it shopuld be easy for students to learn. Third, there should be uses of pictures. Fourth, there should be no excessive use of diagrams, phonetic transcription, and vocabulary lists that tend to scare the students. Fifth, the book should provide short exercises containing 10-15 items. Sixth, the book should discuss interesting materials for the type of students to use it. Finally, in terms of drill or pattern practices, it is better if the book provides simple short dialogues for practice and memorization.

To select the materials for the teaching and learning, Harmer (1985:219) states some factors which should be considered, they are the needs, situation, and the learners. It is also supported by Kasbolah (2001:8), who suggests that the materials selection should be based on the instructional objectives, the need of the learners and the local situation.

2.3 Instructional Media

Since teaching young learners is different from teaching adult learners due to their unique characteristics, the use of the instructional media in the teaching and learning process is very important. The instructional media is really helpful in delivering information. It is also used to attract students’ attention due to that young learners get bored easily and their concentration span is shorter than adult as asserted by Harmer (1985:7). Besides, young learners are still developing their concept from concrete thought to the abstract one, so they need media to make easy to understand the meaniong being conveyed clearly.

Gustschow (in Altis,et al.,1981:275) mentions that from the view of the teacher, media can generally serve four general purposes: (1) media can help to simplify the teaching process, and they can help to perfect it, (2) machines allow teachers to practice the principle of object teaching and learning illustration, (3) with the help of media, the use of mother tongue of students can be avoided, (4) media are instrument of motivation if they are used in such a way as to stimulate learning.
Freuidenstein (in Alatis, et al., 1981:275) also states the same functions of media but from the view of the students thatv is when used by individual learners outside the school situation. He stated that (1) media can help to simplify the learning process,and can help to perfect it, (2) machines allow the students to better understand the content what is being taught, (3) media help to shape the learning process, (4) media can stimulate interest in the language program and thus provide for motivational impulse.

2.3.1 Instructional Media Selection

A teacher has to know how to select media which are appropriate for teaching their students, so that teaching and learning process becomes interesting and not monotonous. The consideration of selecting instructional media proposed by Wright (199 3-4) are (1) it is easy to prepare, (2) it is easy to organize, (3) it is interesting to the students and the teacher, (4) the language and the way the teacher wants the students to use it will be aythentic to the activity, and (5) the activity is going to rise to a sufficient amount of langauge in order to justify its conclusion in the langauge lesson.
There are many kinds of media which can help the teaching and learning process. Kasbollah (2001:27) recommends that the English teachers for elementary school apply some media such as pictures, realia, flash cards, and puppets in their teaching and learning activity.
In conclusion, to make the teaching and learning process successful, the teachers should use appropriate textbooks and instructional media.




III. Method Of Research

3.1. Research Design

The design of the study is descriptive quantitative. It is conducted to describe some problems faced by the teachers who taught English in Elementary schools, especially, in the use of textbooks and instructional media. The kind of research is survey. The researcher collected the data from the teachers who taught English in some elementary schools in Kecamatan Indralaya Kabupaten Ogan Ilir.

3.2 Population and Sample

The population of the research is the English teachers of Elementary schools in Kecamatan Indralaya Kabupaten Ogan Ilir. There are 25 elementary schools in Kecamatan Indralaya, but only five of the elementary schools include English as a local content. So, all the English teachers of the five elementary schools are taken as the sample of research. The elementary schools chosen as the samples of the study are (1) SDN Matang Hanau, (2)SDN Tanah Habang Kanan 1, (3) SDN Lampihong Kanan, (4) SDN Simpang tiga, and (5) SDN Lajar.


3.3 Research Instrument

The instrument used to collect the data is questionnaire. The questionnaire is given to the English teachers of elementary schools. The questionnaire is intended to know the textbooks and media used in teaching learning process, the problems faced in selecting and presenting the instructional materials and media, and the problems faced by the teachers in relation to the unavailibility of the textbooks and media.


3.4 Data Analysis

The datagained through the questionnaire are analyzed using percentage. The formula used is simple percentage. The formula is:
f/N x 100%=percentage

In which f is the frequency (number of respondents fulfilling the questionnaire), and N is the total number of respondents. The data analysis by using percentage above is a form of identifying teachers’ problems in using textbooks and instructional media. It is used to scale or criteria as follows:
NO Percentage Criteria
1 100% All of them
2 80-99% Most of them
3 60%-79% Many of them
4 40%-59% Some of them
5 21%-39% Few of them
6 1%-20% Very few of them
7 0% None of them
Table 3.4 Data Analysis adopted from Krohn’s Kriteria




References

Altis, et al. The Second Language Classroom: New York: Oxford University Press.
Haliwell, S. 1992. Teaching English in the Primary School. New York: Longman
Harmer, J. 1985. The Practice of English Language Teaching. New York Longman
Kasbolah, K. and Sulistyo, G. 1998. The Role of English in Era of Global Information: Ideas on improving Higher Education Instruction. Jurnal bahasa dan Seni 26 (1):13-23
Wright, A. 1993. Why Use Stories in the Primary Class?. Jet. PP. 8-9

Reseach In Proposal

Lecturer : Manallulaili M,Pd

By:

Name : Ichi Sta ‘Inawati

NIM : 0825068

English Department Study

IAIN RADEN FATAH PALEMBANG

1.      The Title of Reseach

Teaching Descriptive Writing using Writing Strategy to the Nine Grade of SMP PG. Cinta Manis - Ketiau, Tanjung Raja.

2.      Background

Nowdays, English is very important to learnt because many people all over the first language to be taught as compulsory subject, it is taught to the students junior high school, senior high school, and university. English is considered a subject for local option instruction in elementary school.

There are four language skills that must be mastered in study in studying English which is listening, speaking. Reading and writing. Beside that, to develope the language skill, there are many aspects of English to assist the students to develope language skills should be taught in balance all are considered the same important.

3.      Problem (s) of the study

Problem (s) Identification

Is there any significant differences on students writing achievement who are taught using heuristic teaching strategy In the current teaching of writing, than those who are not taught by Heuristic to the Nine Grade Students at SMP PG. Cinta Manis.

4.      The Objective (s) of the Study

Based on the problem (s) of the study, First, the students in writing the following problems

1.      Grammar using, composition and other aspects of the word, such as: “I very much like the movie.” the sentence should be: I like the movie very much. “The room is enough big.” adverbs modify adjectives is enough big, big but must be placed after this sentence should be “The room is big enough”. "I singing a song now", now in progress should form be + v + ing form, students often lack the predicate be, the sentence should be "I am singing a song now".
so usually have teachers teaching in the classroom sense to guide them in English thinking to think.

2.      a subject more than one predicate. Most English sentence is 'a subject + a predicate', and other often non-finite verb verb form such as, I went home watched TV yesterday. Should be changed to the infinitive phrase to watch TV, This sentence should be: I went home to watch TV yesterday. Therefore, in the classroom teaching should guide students in writing how to use the infinitive, gerund, participle and other non-predicate form.

3.   a funny in the end. Sentence is a comma to connect high school students writing in English produced by the impact of a native way of sentences the student to write English composition when the total was not yet expressed a complete sentence, it is not consciously a funny in the end, would have resulted in ambiguous relations between sentences, primary and secondary unclear, unfocused, the impact effect of expression.

4.      the language properly. English vocabulary is very rich, first of all to express some sense to choose the right word, showing the expression must carefully weigh the English words, so that the word should convey his ideas, articles and beautiful.

5.      the text layout weak, the article subject is not prominent. Discourse in English means a rich linking, and some used in the sentence level, and some used in the discourse level, but fewer students in the written use of these means of expression, This article makes a great leap, the paper's lack of organic links between topics, there is no obvious take care of, etc., and verbiage, the theme is not prominent.

Other errors, such as punctuation, capitalization and other errors, in the high school students are also common in written expression, therefore, usually teachers in the classroom teaching and guidance in writing essays, there should be more conscious attention to these errors.

Second, the rapid increase of students in the teaching of writing strategies Teachers in the teaching of writing, the effectiveness of teaching strategies is directly related to the improvement of students' skills, the author many years of teaching practice in the use of heuristic teaching received good results.

1.      the advantages of heuristic teaching In the current teaching of writing, the majority of classroom teachers use assessment to make peace is appreciated by a single mode, there is no inspiration for students and teachers under the guidance of active thinking, construct knowledge, capacity, show personality, the enthusiasm of the students and the lack of writing initiative, teachers and the principal role reversal, this would result in the blindness of student writing, but the heuristic teaching of writing so that students must first have a reserve, which is necessary to collect data, organize information, build a frame, words and sentences, and then integrated into the chapter In this series of sessions, teachers should fully carry out heuristic teaching, students focus on all aspects of the start of positive thinking, and gradually lead them to make the process of writing problems, and teachers to give students the correct way of thinking, which enable students to eliminate anxiety, happily into writing activities, so that the students will improve writing skills.

2.      the heuristic teaching steps In teaching practice, writing activities can be divided into three steps: pre-writing preparation (pre-writing, the writing process (writing, article modification (revising. all aspects of a teacher on a 'start', a layer of 'fat', step by step To enter, interlocking, divergent thinking and convergent thinking in the form of combining, the enumeration method, question method, analogy, combination method, information exchange with the use of legal and other ways of thinking through the creation of 'anger,' 'can not speak' of the situation, the students cited 'into the' heart want to pass without a pass, mouth Yuyan not made the quest level, the students wake up from the dim consciousness, so that they take the initiative to explore the writing essentials, writing, looking for ways to produce 'I write,' the a strong desire. We would practice with a teaching case to illustrate the steps of heuristic teaching.

Heuristics as we describe them in this essay are part of critical thinking, so we will begin by defining critical thinking.  As Meyers (1986) pointed out, critical thinking is neither simply formal argument nor problem solving, nor is it merely the study of logic, though all of these elements certainly can be part of it.  Like the word "process" when applied to writing, the phrase “critical thinking” means something different to each person who uses it.  Some define it by Bloom's Taxonomy of Thinking Skills, as follows, each element of which includes all below it:

  

Evaluation

Synthesis

Analysis

Application

Comprehension

Recall  (Bloom, 1964).

  

Robert Ennis (1986) of the Illinois Critical Thinking Project added the following: "Critical thinking . . . includes most or all of the directly practical higher order thinking skills [as in Bloom's Taxonomy]"; however, "critical thinking is not equivalent to the higher order thinking skills."  Rather, it is (also) "reasonable reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do."  In fact, says Ennis, "critical thinking includes dispositions" (p. 10).

   

Several common parameters do exist.  Critical thinking is 

  

(1) broadly defined

(2) process-oriented

(3) both logical and expressive (it includes expressive, emotive, and intuitive forms, as well) 

(4) recursive

(5) transferable

(6) reflexive (it includes self awareness). 

  

A second term is "heuristic."  It means "to discover or find," and heuristics sometimes are referred to as educational tools--tools that help discovery.  Therefore, heuristics are tools for finding or discovering something.

   

Another term used in this essay is the phrase "exploratory discourse."  Exploratory discourse is, simply, discourse that explores a subject.  Kinneavy (1971) identified exploratory discourse as "dialectical--probable (Aristotle and Aquinas)," "valuative (Morris)," and questioning--interrogative (Russell)" (p. 65); as an "opinion (Plato)" and a "way of invention ( Cicero )"; and as involving "discovery (Bacon . . . , Descartes)," "proposing (Pierce)," and "inquiry (Dewey)" (p. 98).  Even "emotion is not entirely excluded . . . , e.g. Plato's dialogues" (p. 68).  Thus we can define heuristics in use as tools for exploratory discourse as follows: using discovery to probe for something more than what we have now.  I like to use a metaphor suggested to me by Joel Peterson (1992), director of the Minnesota State Colleges and Universities Critical Thinking Project, 1992-1998: using heuristics is like having a toolbox (Informal interview).

5.      Teaching Media Page

 References:  

Flower, L. (1985). Problem-solving strategies for writing. San Diego: Harcourt.Hampl, P. (1985, November).  Untitled speech at St. Cloud State University , St. Cloud , Minnesota .Hilgers, T. L. (1980). Training college composition students in the use of freewriting and problem-solving heuristics for rhetorical invention. Research in the Teaching of English 14.4, 293-307.

Kinneavy, J. L. (1971). A theory of discourse. New York: Norton.

Mayfield, M. (1993) Thinking for yourself. Belmont: Wadsworth .

Meyers, C. (1986). Teaching students to think critically. San Francisco: Jossey.

Miller, H. (1994). Thinking and writing critically with metaphor.” Minnesota English Journal 25.1, 10-20.

Perkins, D. N. (1986). Knowledge as design: Teaching thinking through content. In  J. B. Baron & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), Teaching thinking skills: Theory and practiceSalvia, J., & Ysseldyke, J. (2000). Assessment (8th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.
Sattler, J. M. (2001). Assessment of children: Behavioral and clinical applications (4 th ed.). San Diego, CA: Jerome Sattler.

Methods of data collection

The search for answers to research questions calls of collection of data. Data are facts, figures and other relevant materials, past and present, serving as bases for study and analysis.
Types of Data
The data needed for a social science research may be broadly classified into (a) Data pertaining to human beings, (b) Data relating to organisations, and (c) Data pertaining to territorial areas.
Personal data or data related to human beings consist of Demographic and socio-economic characteristics of individuals like age, sex, race, social class, religion, marital status, education, occupation, income, family size, location of the household, life style, etc. and Behavioural variables like attitudes, opinions, awareness, knowledge, practice, intentions, etc.
Organisational data consist of data relating to an organisation’s origin, ownership, objectives, resources, functions, performance and growth.
Territorial data are related to geophysical characteristics, resources endowment, population, occupational pattern, infrastructure, economic structure, degree of development, etc. of spatial divisions like villages, cities, Tabias, Woredas, state/ regions and the nation.
Importance of data
The data serve as the bases or raw materials for analysis. Without an analysis of factual data, no specific inferences can be drawn on the ques-tions under study. Inferences based on imagination or guesswork cannot provide correct answers to research questions. The relevance, adequacy and reliability of data determine the quality of the findings of a study.
Data form the basis for testing the hypotheses formulated in a Study. Data also provide the facts and figures required for constructing measure-ment scales and tables, which are analysed with statistical techniques. Inferences on the results of statistical, analysis and tests of significance provide the answers to research questions. Thus the scientific process of measurement, analysis, testing and inferences depends on the availability of relevant data and their accuracy. Hence the importance of data for any research studies.
SOURCES OF DATA
The sources of data may be classified into (a) primary sources and (b) secondary sources.
Primary Sources
Primary sources are original sources from which the researcher directly collects data that have not been previously collected, e.g., collection of data directly by the researcher on brand awareness, brand preference, brand loyalty and other aspects of consumer behaviour from a sample of consumers by interviewing them. Primary data are first-hand information collected through various methods such as observation, interviewing, mailing etc.
Secondary Sources
These are sources containing data that have been collected and compiled for another purpose. The secondary sources consist of readily available compendia and already compiled statistical statements and reports whose data may be used by researches for their studies, e.g., census reports, annual reports and financial statements of companies, Statistical statements, Reports of Government Departments, Annual Reports on currency and finance published by the National Bank for Ethiopia, Statistical Statements relating to Cooperatives, Federal Cooperative Commission, Commercial Banks and Micro Finance Credit Institutions published by the National Bank for Ethiopia, Reports of the National Sample Survey Organisation, Reports of trade associations, publications of international organisations such as UNO, IMF, World Bank, ILO, WHO, etc., Trade and Financial Journals, newspapers, etc.
Secondary sources consist of not only published records and reports, but also unpublished records. The latter category includes various records and registers maintained by firms and organisations, e.g., accounting and financial records, personnel records, register of members, minutes of meetings, inventory records, etc.
Features of Secondary Sources: Though secondary sources are diverse and consist of all sorts of materials, they have certain common charac-teristics.
First, they are readymade and readily available, and do not require the trouble of constructing tools and administering them.
Second, they consist of data over which a researcher has no original control over collection and classification. Others shape both the form and the content of secondary sources. Clearly, this is a feature, which can limit the research value of secondary sources.
Finally, secondary sources are not limited in time and space. That is, the researcher using them need not have been present when and where they were gathered.
USE OF SECONDARY DATA
Uses
The secondary data may be used in three ways by a researcher. First, some specific information from secondary sources may be used for refer-ence purposes.
Second, secondary data may be used as bench marks against which the findings of a research may be tested.
Finally, secondary data may be used as the sole source of information for a research project. Such studies as Securities Market Behaviour, Financial Analysis of Companies, and Trends in credit allocation in commercial banks, Sociological Studies on crimes, historical studies, and the like depend primarily on secondary data. Year books, Statistical reports of government departments, reports of public organisations like Bureau of Public Enterprises, Census Reports etc. serve as major data sources for such research studies.
Advantages

1. Secondary data, if available, can be secured quickly and cheaply.
2. Wider geographical area and longer reference period may be covered without much cost. Thus the use of secondary data extends the researcher's space and time reach.
3. The use of secondary data broadens the database from which scientific generalizations can be made.
4. The use of secondary data enables a researcher to verify the findings based on primary data.

Disadvantages/limitations

1. The most important limitation is the available data may not meet, our specific research needs.
2. The available data may not be as accurate as desired.
3. The secondary data are not up-to-date and become obsolete when they appear in print, because of time lag in producing them.
4. Finally information about the whereabouts of sources may not be available to all social scientists.

METHODS OF COLLECTING PRIMARY DATA: GENERAL
The researcher directly collects primary data from their original sources. In this case, the researcher can collect the required data precisely according to his research needs, he can collect them when he wants them and in the form he needs them. But the collection of Primary data is costly and time consuming. Yet, for several types of social science research such as socio-economic surveys, social anthropological studies of rural communities and tribal communities, sociological studies of social problems and social institutions, marketing research, leadership studies, opinion polls, attitudinal surveys, readership, radio listening and T.V. viewing surveys, knowledge-awareness practice (KAP) studies, farm management studies, business management studies, etc., required data are not available from secondary sources and they have to be directly gathered from the primary sources.
In all cases where the available data are inappropriate, inadequate or obsolete, primary data have to be gathered. .
Methods of Primary Data Collection
There are various methods of data collection. A ‘Method’ is different from a ‘Tool’. While a method refers to the way or mode of gathering data, a tool is an instrument used for the method. For example, a schedule is used for interviewing. The important methods are (a) observation, (b) interviewing, (c) mail survey, (d) experimentation, (e) simulation, and (f) projective technique.
Observation involves gathering of data relating to the selected research by viewing and/or listening. Interviewing involves face-to-face con-versation between the investigator and the respondent. Mailing is used for collecting data by getting questionnaires completed by respondents. Ex-perimentation involves a study of independent variables under controlled conditions. Experiment may be conducted in a laboratory or in field in a natural setting. Simulation involves creation of an artificial situation similar to the actual life situation. Projective methods aim at drawing inferences on the characteristics of respondents by presenting to them stimuli. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages.
Choice of Methods of Data Collection
Which of the above methods of data collection should be selected for a proposed research project? This is one of the questions to be considered while designing the research plan. One or More methods has/have to be chosen. No method is universal. Each method's unique features should be compared with the needs and conditions of the study and thus the choice of the methods should be decided.
OBSERVATION
Meaning and Importance
Observation means viewing or seeing. We go on observing some thing or other while we are awake. Most of such observations are just casual and have no specific purpose. But observation as a method of data collection is different from such casual viewing.
Observation may be defined as a systematic viewing of a specific phenomenon in its proper setting or the specific purpose of gathering data for a particular study. Observation as a method includes both 'seeing' and 'hearing.' It is accompanied by perceiving as well.
Observation also plays a major role in formulating and testing hypothesis in social sciences. Behavioural scientists observe interactions in small groups; anthropologists observe simple societies, and small com-munities; political scientists observe the behaviour of political leaders and political institutions.
Types of Observation
Observation may be classified in different ways. With reference to the investigator’s role, it may be classified into (a) participant observation, and (b) non-participant observation. In terms of mode of observation, it may be classified into (c) direct observation, and (d) indirect observation. With reference to the rigour of the system adopted, observation is classified into (e) controlled observation, and (f) uncontrolled observation
EXPERIMENTATION
Experimentation is a research ‘process’ used to study the causal relationships between variables. It aims at studying the effect of an inde-pendent variable on a dependent variable, by keeping the other inde-pendent variables constant through some type of control. For example, a -social scientist may use experimentation for studying the effect of a method of family planning publicity on people's awareness of family plan-ning techniques.
Why Experiment?
Experimentation requires special efforts. It is often extremely difficult to design, and it is also a time consuming process. Why should then one take such trouble? Why not simply observe/survey the phenomenon? The fundamental weakness of any non-experimental study is its inability to specify causes and effect. It can show only correlations between variables, but correlations alone never prow causation. The experiment is the only method, which can show the effect of an independent variable on dependent variable. In experimentation, the researcher can manipulate the independent variable and measure its effect on the dependent variable. For example, the effect of various types of promotional strategies on the sale of a given product can be studies by using different advertising media such as T.V., radio and Newspapers. Moreover, experiment provides “the opportunity to vary the treatment (experimental variable) in a systematic manner, thus allowing for the isolation and precise specification of important differences.”
Applications
The applications of experimental method are ‘Laboratory Experiment’, and ‘Field Experiment’.
SIMULATION
Meaning
Simulation is one of the forms of observational methods. It is a process of conducting experiments on a symbolic model representing a phenomenon. Abelson defines simulation as “the exercise of a flexible imitation of processes and outcomes for the purpose of clarifying or explaining the underlying mechanisms involved.” It is a symbolic abstrac-tion, simplification and substitution for some referent system. In other words, simulation is a theoretical model of the elements, relations and processes which symbolize some referent system, e.g., the flow of money in the economic system may be simulated in a operating model consisting of a set of pipes through which liquid moves. Simulation is thus a techni-que of performing sampling experiments on the model of the systems. The experiments are done on the model instead of on the real system, because the latter would be too inconvenient and expensive.
Simulation is a recent research technique; but it has deep roots in history. Chess has often been considered a simulation of medieval warfare.
INTERVIEWING
Definition
Interviewing is one of the major methods of data collection. It may be defined as two-way systematic conversation between an investigator and an informant, initiated for obtaining information relevant to as a specific study.
It involves not only conversation, but also learning from the respondents’ gestures, facial expressions and pauses, and his environment. Interviewing requires face-to-face contact or contact over telephone and calls for interviewing skills. It is done by using a structured schedule or an unstructured guide.
Importance
Interviewing may be us either as a main method or as a supplemen-tary one in studies of persons. Interviewing is the only suitable method for gathering information from illiterate or less educated respondents. It is useful for collecting a wide range of data from factual demographic data to highly personal and intimate information relating to a person's opinions, attitudes, values, beliefs, past experience and future intentions. When qualitative information is required or probing is necessary to draw out fully, then interviewing is required. Where the area covered for the survey is a compact, or when a sufficient number of qualified interviewers are available, personal interview is feasible.
Interview is often superior to other data-gathering methods. People are usually more willing to talk than to write. Once rapport is established, even confidential information may be obtained. It permits probing into the context and reasons for answers to questions.
Interview can add flesh to statistical information. It enables the inves-tigator to grasp the behavioural context of the data furnished by the respondents. It permits the investigator to seek clarifications and brings to the forefront those questions, that, for one reason or another, respondents do not want to answer.
Types of Interviews
The interviews may be classified into: (a) structured or directive interview, (b) unstructured or non-directive interview, (c) focused inter-view, and (d) clinical interview and (e) depth interview.
Telephone Interviewing
Telephone interviewing is a non-personal method of data collection.
Group Interviews
Group interview may be defined as a method of collecting primary data in which a number of individuals with a common interest interact with each other. In a personal interview, the flow of information is multidimensional.
Interviewing Process
The interviewing process consists of the following stages:

• Preparation.
• Introduction
• Developing rapport
• Carrying the interview forward
• Recording the interview, and
• Closing the interview

PANEL METHOD
The panel method is a method of data collection, by which data is collected from the same sample respondents at intervals either by mail or by personal interview. This is used for longitudinal studies on economic conditions, expenditure pattern; consumer behaviour, recreational pattern, effectiveness of advertising, voting behaviour, and so on. The period, over which the panel members are contacted for information may spread over several months or years. The time interval at which they are contacted repeatedly may be 10 or 15 days, or one or two months depending on the nature of the study and the memory span of the respondents.
Characteristics
The basic characteristic of the panel method is successive collection of data on the same items from the same persons over a period of time. The type of information to be collected should be such facts that can be accurately and completely furnished by the respondent without any reservation. The number of item should be as few as possible so that they could be furnished within a few minutes, especially when mail survey is adopted. The average amount of time that a panel member has to spend each time for reporting can be determined in a pilot study. The panel method requires carefully selected and well-trained field workers and effective supervision over their work.-
Types of Panels
The panel may be static or dynamic. A static or continuous panel is one in which the membership remains the same throughout the life of the panel, except for the members who drop out. The dropouts are not replaced.
MAIL SURVEY
Definition
The mail survey is another method of collecting primary data. This method involves sending questionnaires to the respondents with a request to complete them and return them by post. This can be used in the case of educated respondents only. The mail questionnaire should be simple so that the respondents can easily understand the questions and answer them. It should preferably contain mostly closed-end and multiple-choice questions so that it could be completed within a few Minutes.
The distinctive feature of the mail survey is that the questionnaire is self-administered by the respondents themselves and the responses are recorded by them, and not by the investigator as in the case of personal interview method. It does not involve face-to-face conversation between the investigator and the respondent. Communication is carried out only in writing and this requires more cooperation from the respondents than does verbal communication.
Alternative modes of sending questionnaires
There are some alternative methods of distributing questionnaires to the respondents. They are: (1) personal delivery, (2) attaching question-naire to a, product, (3) advertising questionnaire in a newspaper or magazine, and (4) newsstand inserts.
PROJECTIVE TECHNIQUES
The direct methods of data collection, viz., personal interview, telephone interview and mail survey rely on respondents' own report of their behaviour, beliefs, attitudes, etc. But respondents may be unwilling to discuss controversial issues or to reveal intimate information about themselves or may be reluctant to express their true views fearing that they are generally disapproved. In order to overcome these limitations, indirect methods have been developed. Projective Techniques are such indirect methods. They become popular during 1950s as a part of motivation research.
Meaning
Projective techniques involve presentation of ambitious stimuli to the respondents for interpretation. In doing so, the respondents reveal their inner characteristics. The stimuli may be a picture, a photograph, an inkblot or an incomplete sentence. The basic assumption of projective techniques is that a person projects his own thoughts, ideas and attributes when he perceives and responds to ambiguous or unstructured stimulus materials. Thus a person's unconscious operations of the mind are brought to a conscious level in a disguised and projected form, and the person projects his inner characteristics.
Types of Projective Techniques
Projective Techniques may be divided into three broad categories: (a) visual projective techniques (b) verbal projective techniques, and (c) Expressive techniques.
SOCIOMETRY
Sociometry is “a method for discovering, describing and evaluating social status, structure, and development through measuring the extent of acceptance or rejection between individuals in groups.” Franz defines sociometry as “a method used for the discovery and manipulation of social configurations by measuring the attractions and repulsions between in-dividuals in a group.” It is a means for studying the choice, communication and interaction patterns of individuals in a group. It is concerned with attractions and repulsions between individuals in a group. In this method, a person is asked to choose one or more persons according to specified criteria, in order to find out the person or persons with whom he will like to associate.
Sociometry Test
The basic technique in sociometry is the “sociometric test.” This is a test under which each member of a group is asked to choose from all other members those with whom he prefers to associate in a specific situation. The situation must be a real one to the group under study, e.g., 'group study', 'play', 'class room seating' for students of a public school.
A specific number of choices, say two or three to be allowed is determined with reference to the size of the group, and different levels of preferences are designated for each choice.
Suppose we desire to find out the likings and disliking of persons in a work group consisting of 8 persons. Each person is asked to select 3 persons in order or preference with whom he will like to work on a group assignment. The levels of choices are designated as: the first choice by the' number 1, the second by 2, and the third by 3.

Teaching Media Page

The English Teacher

Analyzing Films as Literature

This form is used to help students analyze films as literature. The form could be used as an in-class assignment, or also as a test. *Sometimes students put more effort or attention into an activity which they think is more important such as a test. It is in two parts, but could be used or adapted in whatever way seems most useful to the teacher.

The first part is to be filled out as the students watch the 'current' film. This technique of taking notes as the film progresses, helps them to focus and pay attention. Also, their attention can be focused on aspects of the film which the teacher would like to stress. The second part could be answered from notes on the current film, or from notes on a previously watched film.

I have used this form for 'A Man for All Seasons,' the Paul Scofield version, and 'Stand and Deliver.'

VIDEO TITLE:

1. As you watch the video, list as many beginning conflicts as you can.

_________________________vs__________________________

_________________________vs__________________________

_________________________vs__________________________

etc.

2. When the video is over, choose what you think is the main conflict and explain the reason for your choice in a complete sentence.

Main Conflict: ________________________vs_______________________

Support for choice: _____________________________________
______________________________________________________

3. Write one theme of the video.

__________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________

4. Give some examples of foreshadowing

__________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________

5. Explain scenery symbols.

__________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________

6. What do you think of __________ as a character and as a person?

__________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________

Part II

From either _________________ or __________________ write the following.

A. Theme: [not the same theme as in as in Part I]

__________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________

B. Two symbols: [not those used in Part I]

__________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________

C. Describe two characters using the terms given in class notes:

__________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________

technique collecting data

Behavior-Consequence Observation

An antecedent-behavior-consequence observation (ABC observation) is a

technique used to collect information about the conditions surrounding

children’s challenging behavior. In the Early Childhood eLink unit about

developmentally appropriate practice, you learned that young children’s

challenging behavior occurs in context and serves a function for the child. When

educators design interventions to address the needs of children who engage in

challenging behavior, one of the most important things they must do is identify

the function of the behavior. To identify the function, it is necessary to look at the

conditions surrounding that behavior that motivate the child to act in a certain

way. Behavior is affected by what happens just before it, which is called the

antecedent, and by what happens right after it, which is called the consequence.

An ABC observation is a good strategy to use to assess and understand

children’s behavior. This strategy involves watching a child and taking notes about what happens before and after a

behavior occurs. ABC observations show what is going on before a student engages in a behavior, as well as what

happens after the student engages in the behavior. Once target behaviors have been established, ABC observations

are helpful in determining what the function of the behaviors might be. They also help to decipher what may trigger

the behaviors, as well as what types of things reinforce the behaviors.

Like the naturalistic observation discussed earlier in this unit, ABC observations should hould be conducted in a variety of

settings. These can include both structured settings (such as group circle time) and unstructured settings (such as on

the playground or during free choice time). Children should be observed during their strongest and weakest subjects

and during activities involving varying numbers of students (i.e., large and small group, individual, and one-on-one

activities). Educators may want to observe a child both at home and in the early childhood program, and during

individual, small group, and large group activities. The setting or settings chosen for the observation will likely depend

upon the behavior of concern.

Strategy: Step-By-Step

To carry out the following ABC observation, click on the ABC Analysis Data Sheet.

1. Before you begin your observation, fill out the child’s name and age on the ABC Analysis Data Sheet. Talk to the teacher, and make sure you understand the purpose of your observation. Find out specifically what target behavior you are supposed to observe, and write this down on your data sheet.

2. Find a place where you can comfortably observe the child. Try to be as inconspicuous as possible. If you are observing in your own classroom or a familiar setting, then the children will be less reactive or less likely to notice you. If you are in a new or different setting, some children may look at you, ask you questions, or even act differently just because you are there.

3. On your ABC Analysis Data Sheet, write down the date and time of your observation. Plan to observe for at least 20 minutes.

4. You may now begin observing the child. Any time you see the child engage in the target behavior, record this in the Behavior column of the ABC Analysis Data Sheet. Also, in the Antecedent column, record what happened directly before the behavior occurred, and in the Consequence column, record what happened directly after the behavior occurred. For example, if you were observing a child whose target behavior was kicking, whenever you saw the child kick, you would record this in the Behavior section of the data sheet. You would then think back to what happened directly before the kicking occurred. For instance, maybe one of the other children in the room made fun of the child immediately before the kicking occurred. You would record this in the Antecedent column. Then you would watch to see what transpired directly after the kicking happened. For example, if the teacher told the child to stop kicking and take a time out, you would record this in the Consequence column of the data sheet.

5. When recording your observations, do not give opinions or make judgments. Do not criticize, try to write creatively, or use qualifiers such as very, extremely, probably, etc. Instead, write as objectively as possible. Describe what you see in terms of behavior, and use quotes whenever possible to record what has been said during the observation. For instance, instead of writing down that the teacher yelled at Amy after she pushed Gabriel, you should try to record exactly what the teacher said: “Amy, stop pushing, and sit down right now!”

6. After at least 20 minutes of watching the child, you may end the observation. Make sure that your notes are written in such a way that they can be clearly understood by the teacher or the team of educators who have requested your help with data collection.

Questions to Consider When Implementing This Strategy

Antecedents

What sets off the child’s behavior of concern What is going on with the child or in the setting when the child engages in the behavior of concern

Behavior

What do you think the child gains by behaving this way? What might the child get out of or avoid by engaging in the behavior? What else does the child get or access through this behavior?

Consequences

What does the adult do when the behavior occurs? What do peers do when the behavior occurs? What happens immediately after the challenging behavior occurs?

Information in this lesson is used with permission from:

Salvia, J., & Ysseldyke, J. (2000). Assessment (8th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co.

Sattler, J. M. (2001). Assessment of children: Behavioral and clinical applications (4 th ed.). San Diego, CA: Jerome Sattler.

3. Problem (s) of the study

3. Problem (s) of the study

3.1 Problem (s) Identification
Writing is a high school English listening, speaking, reading and writing skills in the most difficult to improve a skill, but the English listening, speaking, reading, writing are closely related and interwoven, each base is gradually increased. Listen and reading and understanding other people's expression of understanding of ideas, is internal to the external language within the language process, writing ability in listening, speaking, reading, based on continuously develop and improve, and writing training can further improve the listening, speaking, reading ability based on many years in the author's personal experience teaching junior high school English, summed up the problems in the writing of students improve their writing skills and teaching strategies.

First, the students in writing the following problems 1, text in Chinese mode of thinking to apply, including idioms, grammar, composition and other aspects of the word, such as: I very much like the movie. Students only mode of thinking according to Chinese translation, does not know English very much is a modification of the verb , like habits on the end of the sentence, the sentence should be: I like the movie very much. The room is enough big. adverbs modify adjectives is enough big, big but must be placed after this sentence should be The room is big enough . "I singing a song now", now in progress should form be + v + ing form, students often lack the predicate be, the sentence should be "I am singing a song now".
so usually have teachers teaching in the classroom sense to guide them in English thinking to think.

2, a subject more than one predicate. Most English sentence is 'a subject + a predicate', and other often non-finite verb verb form such as, I went home watched TV yesterday. Should be changed to the infinitive phrase to watch TV, This sentence should be: I went home to watch TV yesterday. Therefore, in the classroom teaching should guide students in writing how to use the infinitive, gerund, participle and other non-predicate form.

3, a funny in the end. Sentence is a comma to connect high school students writing in English produced by the impact of a native way of sentences the student to write English composition when the total was not yet expressed a complete sentence, it is not consciously a funny in the end, would have resulted in ambiguous relations between sentences, primary and secondary unclear, unfocused, the impact effect of expression.
4, the language properly. English vocabulary is very rich, first of all to express some sense to choose the right word, showing the expression must carefully weigh the English words, so that the word should convey his ideas, articles and beautiful.

5, the text layout weak, the article subject is not prominent. Discourse in English means a rich linking, and some used in the sentence level, and some used in the discourse level, but fewer students in the written use of these means of expression, This article makes a great leap, the paper's lack of organic links between topics, there is no obvious take care of, etc., and verbiage, the theme is not prominent.

Other errors, such as punctuation, capitalization and other errors, in the high school students are also common in written expression, therefore, usually teachers in the classroom teaching and guidance in writing essays, there should be more conscious attention to these errors.

Second, the rapid increase of students in the teaching of writing strategies Teachers in the teaching of writing, the effectiveness of teaching strategies is directly related to the improvement of students' skills, the author many years of teaching practice in the use of heuristic teaching received good results.

1, the advantages of heuristic teaching In the current teaching of writing, the majority of classroom teachers use assessment to make peace is appreciated by a single mode, there is no inspiration for students and teachers under the guidance of active thinking, construct knowledge, capacity, show personality, the enthusiasm of the students and the lack of writing initiative, teachers and the principal role reversal, this would result in the blindness of student writing, but the heuristic teaching of writing so that students must first have a reserve, which is necessary to collect data, organize information, build a frame, words and sentences, and then integrated into the chapter In this series of sessions, teachers should fully carry out heuristic teaching, students focus on all aspects of the start of positive thinking, and gradually lead them to make the process of writing problems, and teachers to give students the correct way of thinking, which enable students to eliminate anxiety, happily into writing activities, so that the students will improve writing skills.

2, the heuristic teaching steps In teaching practice, writing activities can be divided into three steps: pre-writing preparation (pre-writing, the writing process (writing, article modification (revising. all aspects of a teacher on a 'start', a layer of 'fat', step by step To enter, interlocking, divergent thinking and convergent thinking in the form of combining, the enumeration method, question method, analogy, combination method, information exchange with the use of legal and other ways of thinking through the creation of 'anger,' 'can not speak' of the situation, the students cited 'into the' heart want to pass without a pass, mouth Yuyan not made the quest level, the students wake up from the dim consciousness, so that they take the initiative to explore the writing essentials, writing, looking for ways to produce 'I write,' the a strong desire. I would practice with a teaching case to illustrate the steps of heuristic teaching.

Teaching content: 'tourist guide' in the title, imagine I am a tour guide, with foreigners to visit my hometown.

Teaching goals: speaking, writing, and to improve students' practical ability and creative ability in English, for teachers and students, the emotional exchanges between life and life to inspire students to a love of home.

Teaching key and difficult points: how to do that and write the interface, guides the students to imitate the comments and evaluation.

The teaching process: write pre Activity1: to guide students to talk about their home. Links to free download http://www.hi138.com teachers set questions: A. Where is your hometown? B. Do you love your hometown? C. Why do you love your hometown? D. Is your hometown beautiful? E. How are the people there? F. Does your hometown have any specialties? G. Is there any interesting places in your hometown? The teaching to inspire students from a variety of home produced beautiful reverie details, so that a variety of writing materials come to their minds, to pave the way for the following activities, frame Approach.

Activity 2: designed to enable students to complete the form below.

This part of nexus, in co-operation activities to stimulate students to participate in thinking, active thinking, and lay a solid foundation for the following activities.

Activity 3: enter the main issues, travel guide The following describes the content students A: My hometown stands by the side of Yangtze River.

It is a good place for fishing and swimming.

B: There are many villages for holiday and beautiful countryside scenery.

C: My hometown is famous for producing Huangshantou alcohol.

...

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Proposal Reseach

1. The Title of Reseach
Teaching Descriptive Writing using Writing Strategy to the Nine Grade of SMP PG. Cinta Manis - Ketiau, Tanjung Raja.
2. Background
Nowdays, English is very important to learnt because many people all over the first language to be taught as compulsory subject, it is taught to the students junior high school, senior high school, and university. English is considered a subject for local option instruction in elementary school.
There are four language skills that must be mastered in study in studying English which is listening, speaking. Reading and writing. Beside that, to develope the language skill, there are many aspects of English to assist the students to develope language skills should be taught in balance all are considered the same important.